Life vs. Death Penalty

The death penalty has been one of the most debated topics in America for years. It holds the same level of importance in politics as abortion or gun control because it is such a controversial subject. The stance that I currently hold with this debate is closer towards life in prison. Not because I don't fully believe that someone who kills a lot of people or does Just horrible acts should 100% be punished and possibly killed themselves, but because I find more benefits towards keeping someone in Jail for life. For example, the cost to keep someone in Jail is a lot cheaper than it is to kill them.A study in 2011 showed that it cost California more than $4 billion dollars to do executions since 1978. $1. 94 billion went towards the trails, $925 million towards Automatic Appeals and State Habeas Corpus Petitions, $775 million towards Federal Habeas Corpus Appeals, and $1 billion went towards Costs of Incarceration. And we can't forget how much it costs to pay for the security guards who look over these inmates. The total cost to pay these security guards a year comes up to $90,000 PER INMATE a year. It's also been said that the death penalty trails are 20 times more expensive than a trail for imprisonment without parole.If the Governor of California sentenced the inmates that are on death row to life in prison he could save almost $170 million a year! The Executive of the DPIC stated, â€Å"The death penalty in the U. S. is an enormously expensive and wasteful program with no clear benefits. All of the studies on the cost of capital punishment conclude it is much more expensive than a system with life sentences as the maximum penalty. In a time of painful budget utbacks, states are pouring money into a system that results in a declining number of death sentences and executions that are almost exclusively carried out in Just one area of the country.As many states face further deficits, it is an appropriate time to consider whether maintaining the costly death pena lty system is being smart on crime. † Another reason that life in Jail is a better punishment is because it is an actual effective punishment. There is nothing that shows that the death penalty has been effective in lowering crimes. To be in a prison cell for your entire life with nothing to o but think, sit, sleep, eat, and maybe a recreational activity or two, that is actually worse than death.Being in prison sends some people crazy or can possibly change them completely, which I believe is a way better punishment because they are forced to live with the crime that they committed. Death would be an easy and quick way out. Granted, the death row inmates are doing nothing but sitting, thinking, and waiting. That is what they are doing, waiting. They are waiting for the end, because they, unlike the other inmates, have an end. And honestly how is that fair, we for hatever reason think that if we kill them that will teach them and others like them to never commit the bad acts ag ain, when in fact we are making it simple for them.The DPIC executive said, â€Å"The nation's police chiefs rank the death penalty last in their priorities for effective crime reduction. The officers do not believe the death penalty acts as a deterrent to murder, and they rate it as one of most inefficient uses ot taxpayer dollars in tgnting crime. Criminologists concur that the death penalty does not effectively reduce the number of murders. † The death sentence is absolute, here is no reversing it so if we execute someone and more evidence comes up that later proves someone innocent, we can't take back the execution. 40 people were wrongly executed since 1973. The most common reason for people wrongfully being charged with the death penalty are false confessions, witness errors, government misconduct, faulty science, bad lawyers or snitch testimonies. Also believe it or not but race does play a factor in whether or not someone can receive the death penalty vs. life in pris on. Just about 68% of inmates that are on death row are non-whites. We simply cannot say we live in a country that offers equal Justice to all Americans when racial disparities plague the system by which our society imposes the ultimate punishment. Senator Russ Feingold, 2003. In 1990, a report from the General Accounting Office said that 82% of the cases that were reviewed showed that if the criminal killed a white person they were more likely to be sent to death row than if they killed another minority. There are currently 1,822 minority inmates on death row and there has been approximately 394 minorities executed since 1976, comparing his to the 1,475 white death row inmates and the 643 that have been executed.Something interesting is the death rate by homicide in California varies sole by race. African Americans are six times more likely to be murdered than whites in California. While 27. 6% of murder victims are white, 80% of executions in California have been for those convict ed of killing whites. Lastly, the death penalty is Just morally wrong. How do we as a country Justify that someone is being punished for murder or something of that sort and to correct/ punish this behavior we execute them. That is o backwards.America is a country that frowns upon other countries who don't value life but we don't really know how to back up that thinking because we are a country who grew up knowing to fix problems with violence. After George W. Bush stated in the 2000 presidential elections, â€Å"l don't think you should support the death penalty to seek revenge. I don't think that's right. I think the reason to support the death penalty is because it saves other people's lives† Family guy retaliated with, â€Å"l support the death penalty to teach people killing is wrong† Brian on Family Guy.When you think bout it, how does killing the inmate keep us any safer than Just keeping them in Jail forever? At the end of the day no one is being harmed, and ev eryone who is outside of prison is safe. The families of the victims can have peace of mind that they know the person will rot in prison and everyone else no longer has to even wonder if that person will come for them next. It's a win win situation. Until someone comes up with a plan that is more cost effective, humane, and still effectively punishes people for crimes the same or better than life in prison does, that seems to be the best way to handle criminals.

How Starbucks Saved My Life Essay

We chose to review the bestselling book called â€Å"How Starbucks Saved My Life† by Michael Gill because we thought that it would be a good read, as the title itself was intriguing. The book was quite difficult to find but somehow we managed to chance upon some copies of it. The book was not a disappointment as it was truly inspirational. It had taught us to start looking on the brighter side of life and to always move forward, not backward. We have also learned that we should not dwell on the past. At the start of the book, Michael Gill had been living in his past and had many regrets in his past life. Soon enough, the author came to the realization that lingering in his past was not going to make the present any better for himself. Hence, he made the decision to obtain a more positive mindset about the future. He proceeded to observe things in a different light and always did things with an open mind. Another one of the reasons why we chose this book was because it has also taught us to be hard working and take pride in whatever we have accomplished. In addition to that, the author taught us to never take things for granted and to appreciate the things we have in life before it can be abruptly taken away from us. The book is based on a true story about the author’s life. He used to work with J. Walter Thompson (JWT) – the largest advertising agency in the United States of America – as a successful advertising executive. He devoted most of his life working hard for the agency and sacrificed most of his time with his family to contribute in making the agency successful. He had spent long hours working with his clients instead of being with his family. The author thought of himself as a pillar of his family. He thought that sacrificing his job was worth all the times he had not been there for his family as he desired to provide a good life for his family. In fact, he was so loyal to his job that he was willing to surrender spending Christmas with his family to work with his client. The author had said â€Å"I was full of pride that I had never refused any effort JWT ever asked of me. † (2008, page 8). He had done everything he could to dedicate himself to the company; he was soon enough fired by one of his colleagues, Linda. The author had really liked Linda and he had helped her to move up on the Board of Directors. Hence, he felt extremely hurt that he was fired by Linda as he thought of her as a friend. The author was also furious with himself because he did not notice the signs earlier on while he was working that his new boss, a Brit named Martin Sorrell, who was younger than him. One of the signs that the author should have paid attention to was when his boss had once said straightforwardly â€Å"I like young people around me. † (2008, page 9). A few years later, he decided to open up his own consulting company and at the start, many of his old clients made business with him. However, his business gradually slowed down to a halt as lesser and lesser of his clients went back to him. His life became more miserable when he found out that he had a tiny tumour called an ‘acoustic neuroma’ on the base of his brain that was affecting his hearing. The author also started going to the gym momentarily after he was fired to keep himself occupied. â€Å"I needed a reason to get out of the house everyday, and exercise became my new reason for getting up and out. (2008, page 23) was what the author said. The gym was where he met his mistress, Susan. He had an affair with Susan for more than a year while still being married to his wife, Betsy. Late one morning, Susan broke the news to the author that she was pregnant with his child. He had hoped that she would go for an abortion but she refused because she thought that God told her that she should keep the baby. The author had then confessed to his wife of many years that he had impregnated another woman which led to his divorce. The author was sitting in a Starbucks store, reminiscing about his past when a black lady named Crystal accosted him intrepidly and confidently, offering him a job at Starbucks. During the interview, Crystal provided the author with a booklet that showed the health benefits of working as a barista at Starbucks. This caused the author to immediately make the decision to work at Starbucks as he could finally secure his fifth and last child’s health insurance. He then embarked on a new journey working at Starbucks and working for Crystal was a new experience for him since he was used to working in a high rank position. The author also wrote about how the Guests of Starbucks treated him differently than the clients he used to work with in his previous job. His Partners treated him with respect and was always patient when it came to teaching him new things. Slowly, he moved up his position as a barista and became the Coffee Master of the store. He adored his job so much that he wanted to exceed his service for his Partners and Guests. Therefore, he did this in a form of writing poems for them. One of the poems he wrote for his Guests was: â€Å"Your wonderful smile/When you walk in the door/Helps to make/Our spirit soar. You make sure to us/Just how we are/When we see you at the register/Or at the bar. /Little wonder you are our star/And a favourite Guest. /You bring out/Our very best! † (2008, page 224). At last, he decided to quit working at Crystal’s store and work at the Starbucks store which is near to his apartment. When he told Crystal that he wanted to work at another Starbucks store, he was praised by Crystal as being one of the best at delivering legendary service. It meant that he made the extra efforts to make positive bonds with the Guests. Due to his excellent service, he helped the store to attain a five star award which was the first ever time that Starbucks rewarded its stores. The book was useful to us as there were some original economic acumen. It taught us that no matter how rich and successful you are at that point in your life, you will still have to make a financial backup plan and be vigilant towards your own financial wealth. We found this book inspiring because the author did not give up even after many downfalls in his life. It taught us to persevere through hardship and be determined to overcome it. Family was also another important factor that he had stressed on in the book. He wrote about how he regretted not spending enough time with his family. He wrote that he was upset with himself because he had not been able to see his children grow up as fine adults that they are presently. This has taught us not to neglect our family even though it clashes with our personal work. We must always spend quality time together because it will strengthen the bond in the family as it is our first priority. The fact that he was the reason why his family was broken apart also caused him to feel guilty. The author had lived luxuriously all his life until he was fired by his company. He had once said in an interview, â€Å"I was born with just about every advantage you could imagine, or even wish for. † He had everything he wanted but he took it for granted. We can relate this to our lives as it acts as a reminder to us to always treasure what we have in life. This book is mostly about his experience working at Starbucks. However, the book was not entirely perfect. What did not appeal to us the most was that he had too many flashbacks. Due to the numerous flashbacks which he had, it made the book less interesting to us. It was tough for us to continue halfway through the story as he droned on about his previous life too much but eventually, we still managed to finish the book. The book also had too many corporate speaking and repetition. Another reason why it was not that useful was that the author talked about the Partners, Guests and having respect almost endlessly but only mentioned about his affair, divorce and his out-of-wedlock child merely. He had not exactly elaborated on the negative impacts in his life. Other than that, the author had also said in his book that he regretted prioritizing his work rather than his family in his younger years but it still seems as if he is achieving more from his work instead of from his new child. We have learned the importance of respect and serving people well from him but we feel that he had not learned how to connect with his children – especially his last child – well enough.

Sop for Msc in Electrical Engineering

e idea of the first cellular network was brainstormed in 1947. It was intended to be used for military purposes as a way of supplying troops with more advanced forms of communications. From 1947 till about 1979 several different forms of broadcasting technology emerged. The United States began to develop the AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone Service) network, while European countries were developing their own forms of communication. 1. 2 History of GSM Technology Europeans quickly realized the disadvantages of each European country operating on their mobile network. It prevents cell phone use from country to country within Europe.With the emerging European Union and high travel volume between countries in Europe this was seen as a problem. Rectifying the situation the Conference of European Posts and Telegraphs (CEPT) assembled a research group with intentions of researching the mobile phone system in Europe. This group was called Group Special Mobile (GSM). For the next ten years the GSM group outlined standards, researched technology and designed a way to implement a pan-European mobile phone network. In 1989 work done by the GSM group was transferred to the European Telecommunication Standards Institute (ETSI).The name GSM was transposed to name the type of service invented. The acronym GSM had been changed from Group Special Mobile to Global Systems Mobile Telecommunications. By April of 1991 commercial service of the GSM network had begun. Just a year and half later in 1993 there were already 36 GSM networks in over 22 countries. Several other countries were on the rise to adopt this new mobile phone network and participate in what was becoming a worldwide standard. At the same time, GSM also became widely used in the Middle East, South Africa and Australia.While the European Union had developed a sophisticated digital cell phone system, the United States was still operating primarily on the old, analog AMPS network and TDMA. Department of E&C 2010 Lovely Instit ute of Technology, Phagwara 2 RF OPTIMIZATION AND PLANNING In the end o the end of October 2001, Cingular was the first to announce their switch to the 3G GSM network. This involved switching more then 22 million customers from TDMA to GSM. In 2005 Cingular stopped new phone activation on the TDMA network and began only selling GSM service. 1. History of GSM in brief †¢1982:CEPT (Conference of European Posts and Telecommunications) establishes a GSM group in order to develop the standards for pan-European cellular mobile system †¢1988:Validation of the GSM System. †¢1991:Commercial launch of the GSM service. †¢1992:Enlargement of the countries that signed the GSM-MoU> Coverage of larger cities/airports. †¢1993:Coverage of main roads GSM services start outside Europe. †¢1995:Phase 2 of the GSM specifications Coverage of rural areas. 1. 4 GSM Frequency Band There are five major GSM frequencies that have become standard worldwide. They are following  ¦GS M-1800  ¦GSM850 GSM-1900  ¦GSM-400 1. 4. 1 GSM-900 and GSM-1800 GSM-900 and GSM-1800 are standards used mostly worldwide. It is the frequency European phones operate on as well as most of Asia and Australia. 1. 4. 2 GSM-850 and GSM-1900 GSM-850 and GSM-1900 are primarily United States frequencies. They are also the standard for Canada GSM service and countries in Latin and South America. Most of the Cingular network operates on GSM 850, while much of T-Mobile operates at GSM-1900. T-Mobile however, has roaming agreements with Cingular. Meaning in the case of no service at GSM-1900, the phone will switch to GSM-850 and operate on Cingular’s network. . 4. 3 GSM-400 GSM-400 is the least popular of the bunch and is rarely used. It is an older frequency that was used in Russia and Europe before GSM-900 and GSM-1800 became available. There are not many networks currently operating at this frequency. .5 GSM Services . The GSM services are grouped into three categories: 1. Telese rvices (TS) 2. Bearer services (BS) 3. Supplementary services (SS) 1. 5. 1 Teleservices Regular telephony, emergency calls, and voice messaging are within Teleservices. Telephony, the old bidirectional speech calls, is certainly the most popular of all services.An emergency call is a feature that allows the mobile subscriber to contact a nearby emergency service, such as police, by dialing a unique number. Voice messaging permits a message to be stored within the voice mailbox of the called party either because the called party is not reachable or because the calling party chooses to do so. 1. 5. 2 Bearer Services Data services, short message service (SMS), cell broadcast, and local features are within BS. Rates up to 9. 6 kbit/s are supported. With a suitable data terminal or computer connected directly to the mobile apparatus, data may be sent through circuit-switched or packet-switched networks.Short messages containing as many as 160 alphanumeric characters can be transmitted to or from a mobile phone. In this case, a message center is necessary. The broadcast mode (to all subscribers) in a given geographic area may also be used for short messages of up to 93 alphanumeric characters. Some local features of the mobile terminal may be used. These may include, for example, abbreviated dialing, edition of short messages, repetition of failed calls, and others. .5. 3 Supplementary Services Some of the Supplementary Services are as follows: 1.Advice of charge:- This SS details the cost of a call in progress. 2. Barring of all outgoing calls: – This SS blocks outgoing calls. 3. Barring of international calls:- This SS blocks incoming or outgoing international calls as a whole or only those associated with a specific basic service, as desired. 4. Barring of roaming calls: – This SS blocks all the incoming roaming calls or only those associated with a specific service. 5. Call forwarding:- This SS forwards all incoming calls, or only those associated with a specific basic service, to another directory number.The forwarding may be unconditional or may be performed when the mobile subscriber is busy, when there is no reply, when the mobile subscriber is not reachable, or when there is radio congestion. 6. Call hold: – This SS allows interruption of a communication on an existing call. Subsequent reestablishment of the call is permitted. 7. Call waiting: – This SS permits the notification of an incoming call when the mobile subscriber is busy. 8. Call transfer: – This SS permits the transference of an established incoming or outgoing call to a third party. 9.Completion of calls to busy subscribers: – This SS allows notification of when a busy called subscriber becomes free. At this time, if desired, the call is reinitiated. 10. Closed user group:- This SS allows a group of subscribers to communicate only among themselves. 11. Calling number identification presentation/restriction: – This SS permit s the presentation or restricts the presentation of the calling party’s identification number (or additional address information). 12. Connected number identification presentation: – This SS indicatChapter 2 GSM Identitieses the phone number that has been reached Chapter 2 GSM Identities 2.Classification of GSM IDENTITY NUMBER  ¦Mobile Station ISDN Number (MSISDN)  ¦International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)  ¦Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN)  ¦International Mobile Station Equipment Identity (IMEI)  ¦Location Area Identity (LAI) .2. 1 Mobile Station ISDN Number (MSISDN) The MSISDN is a number which uniquely identifies a mobile telephone subscription in the public switched telephone network numbering plan. According to the CCITT recommendations, the mobile telephone number or catalogue number to be dialled is composed in the following way: MSISDN = CC + NDC + SN CC = Country Code NDC = National Destination CodeSN = Subscriber Number E. g. 919822012345 = 91 + 98 + 22 + 012345 A National Destination Code is allocated to each GSM PLMN. In some countries, more than one NDC may be required for each GSM PLMN. The international MSISDN number may be of variable length. The maximum length shall be 15 digits, prefixes not included. 2. 2 International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) The IMSI is the information which uniquely identifies a subscriber in a GSM/PLMN. For a correct identification over the radio path and through the GSM PLMN network, a specific identity is allocated to each subscriber.This identity is called the International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) and is used for all signalling in the PLMN. It will be stored in the Subscriber Identity Module (SIM), as well as in the Home Location Register (HLR) and in the serving Visitor Location Register (VLR). The IMSI consists of three different parts: IMSI = MCC + MNC + MSIN MCC = Mobile Country Code (3 digits) MNC = Mobile Network Code (2 digits) MSIN = Mobile Subscriber Ident ification Number (max 10 digits) e. g. 404 + 22 +0000123456 According to the GSM recommendations, the IMSI will have a length of maximum 15 digits.All network–related subscriber information is connected to the IMSI 2. 3 Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN) HLR knows in what MSC/VLR Service Area the subscriber is located. In order to provide a temporary number to be used for routing, the HLR requests the current MSC/VLR to allocate and return a Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN) for the called subscriber At reception of the MSRN, HLR sends it to the GMSC, which can now route the call to the MSC/VLR exchange where the called subscriber is currently registered.The interrogation call routing function (request for an MSRN) is part of the Mobile Application Part (MAP). All data exchanged between the GMSC – HLR – MSC/VLR for the purpose of interrogation is sent over the No. 7 signalling network. The Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN), according to the GSM recommend ations, consists of three parts: MSRN = CC + NDC + SN CC = Country Code NDC = National Destination Code SN = Subscriber Number e. g. : 91 + 98 + 22 + 005XXX where, 005XXX is sent by MSC. 00 is for Pune MSC, 20 is for Nagpur MSC, 10 is for Goa MSC.Note: In this case, SN is the address to the serving MSC The IMEI is used for equipment identification. An IMEI uniquely identifies a mobile station as a piece or assembly of equipment. (See IMEI, chapter 5. ) IMEI = TAC + FAC + SNR + sp TAC = Type Approval Code (6 digits), determined by a central GSM body FAC = Final Assembly Code (2 digits), identifies the manufacturer SNR = Serial Number (6 digits), an individual serial number of six digits uniquely identifying all equipment within each TAC and FAC sp = spare for future use (1 digit) e. g. 52518 + 00 + 581976 + 3 Where, 35 is for Nokia Handsets According to the GSM specification, IMEI has the length of 15 digits. 2. 5 Location Area Identity (LAI) LAI is used for location updating of mobi le subscribers. LAI = MCC + MNC + LAC MCC = Mobile Country Code (3 digits), identifies the country. It follows the same numbering plan as MCC in IMSI. MNC = Mobile Network Code (2 digits), identifies the GSM/PLMN in that country and follows the same numbering plan as the MNC in IMSI. LAC = Location Area Code, identifies a location area within a GSM PLMN network.The maximum length of LAC is 16 bits, enabling 65 536 different location areas to be defined in one GSM PLMN. E. g. 404 +22 + 10000 where 10000 is the LAC for Pune. 2. 6 Cell Global Identity (CGI) CGI is used for cell identification within the GSM network. This is done by adding a Cell Identity (CI) to the location area identity. CGI = MCC + MNC + LAC + CI CI = Cell Identity, identifies a cell within a location area, maximum 16 bits e. g. 404 + 22 + 10000 + 726 Where, 404 + 22 + 10000 is the LAI for Pune and 726 are the CI of one of the cells of Pune. CI is different for all the three sectors of the cell. . 7 Base Station Ide ntity Code (BSIC) BSIC allows a mobile station to distinguish between different neighbouring base stations. BSIC = NCC + BCC NCC = Network Colour Code (3 bits), identifies the GSM PLMN. Note that it does not uniquely identify the operator. NCC is primarily used to distinguish between operators on each side of border. BCC = Base Station Colour Code (3 bits), identifies the Base Station to help distinguish between BTS using the same BCCH frequencies e. g. 71 Where 7 is the NCC for IDEA Operator. and 1 is the BCC. BCC can range from 0 to 7 Chapter 3 GSM Network ElementsGSM stands for Global System for Mobile communication & is a globally accepted standard for digital cellular communication. GSM is the name of a standardization group established in 1982 to create a common European mobile telephone standard that would formulate specifications for a pan-European mobile cellular radio system operating at 900 MHz. It is estimated that many countries outside of Europe will join the GSM partn ership. GSM provides recommendations, not requirements. The GSM specifications define the functions and interface requirements in detail but do not address the hardware.The reason for this is to limit the designers as little as possible but still to make it possible for the operators to buy equipment from different suppliers. The GSM network is divided into three major systems: ? The switching system (SS) ? The base station system (BSS) ?The operation and support system (OSS) 3. 1 GSM BASIC BLOCK DIAGRAM Department of E&C 2010 Lovely Institute of Technology, Phagwara 14 RF OPTIMIZATION AND PLANNING 3. 2 BASIC GSM NETWORK ARCHITECTURE 3. 2. 1 SWITCHING CENTRE Department of E&C 2010 Lovely Institute of Technology, Phagwara

Course work business law environment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

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Population Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

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Counterterrorism - Essay Example immediate measures at once to ensure that terrorism would not happen again, also, and the American government immediately implemented counter-terrorism precautions and laws that would aid them in their fight against terrorism. With this accord, the international community has find itself moving alongside with the American government in its campaign against terrorism. The American government, in connection of its campaign against terrorism and the people that were involved with the attacks, has tracked down the proprietors of the terrorist attacks in World Trade Center and Pentagon, the results of their investigations was that Osama Bin Laden and his terrorist group, Al-Qaeda, was behind the terrorist acts. Soon enough, Bin Laden was named as the world’s â€Å"most wanted criminal† and the American government swiftly launch an attack on Afghanistan were it is believed that the Taliban government hides Bin Laden and the rest of the members of Al-Qaeda. The assault to Afghanistan, as it was called, soon took place and Afghanistan was under American government since then. Aside from this, the American government has convinced other government to pursue hostility against any one who will commit terrorist acts. Countries that are being aided by the United States of America and the country’s original allies (ie. Great Britain) quic kly joined the US in its fight against terrorism and soon afterwards, it seems that counterterrorism was newest trend of the new millennium. However, this paper will not focus its discussion on the attack in Afghanistan or on the war against Iraq; instead it will center on the discussion on the reaction and changes that occurred in the international community after the 9/11 incident. Also, not only will this paper will highlight on the changes outside the US but also the changes within the Bush administration and American government, especially on their immediate steps toward ratifying different laws about counter-terrorism and the

How Socrates, Plato and Aristotle view the role of education for the Research Paper

How Socrates, Plato and Aristotle view the role of education for the society and the individual - Research Paper Example The accumulation of philosophies relating to education in Greek culture became known as the Educational Theory. The mentioned Educational Theorycan be regarding as a hypothetical educational assumption, or a thought, which acts a guide in explaining and the description of the practice of education. Socrates was one of the earliest Greek philosophers who can be credited for being one of the originators of the modern Western philosophy. It also believed that Socrates was a thinker and not a writer as the evidence suggests that he had minimal written accounts of this thoughts and philosophical processes. Despite these, Socrates is known as the Father of Modern Philosophy and is considered as one of the greatest thinkers of all time. Socrates, very aptly and very strategically divided his views about the imparting of education and knowledge. Socrates stated that as long as the goals of education are fulfilled, it is indeed worthwhile to gain knowledge and education. According to Socrates the goals of education were to realize what an individual can do and what an individual cannot do. Furthermore, the great philosopher did not discriminate when it came to the imparting of knowledge and believed that there was no regular authority for that. Throughout his theories, Socrates, in numerous attempts has disowned and dishonored his theories, ideas and methods, which nevertheless can be one of his strategies to engross the deliberators and furthermore sanction them to have an open, fearless and a constructive deliberation and an argument. â€Å"The Socratic method is one in which a teacher, by asking leading questions, guides students to discovery. Socrates devoted himself to a free-wheeling discussion with the aristocratic young citizens of Athens, even though he often offered them no clear alternative teaching† (New Foundations - Educational Theory of Socrates, 2011) . Another very important figure in Greek philosophy and one of the few philosophers who contribut ed to their fullest to the notion of education was Plato. According to Plato, education was one of the most important achievable goals in the society. He believed and stressed greatly on the imparting and receiving of education. Plato wanted the identification of a specific skill set and aptitude possessed by the children. He believed that if appropriate education with respect to that specific skill set or aptitude is given to the child, the child may be able to fulfill his or her duty in the society and moreover, the social responsibility. Plato was also one of the most learned individuals of his time and wrote down his thoughts, unlike his predecessor, Socrates. Plato was considered an authority in numerous fields such as music, drama, metaphysics, art, architecture as well as poetry. Plato’s views on education were also revolutionary and were a source of inspiration for many. Plato model for education was considered as the most organized and systematic and introduced a hie rarchical level of education, starting from elementary school level and leading to higher education, with two years of military training in between. Plato’s educational models and policies were regardless of any sort of discrimination and he believed that each and every individual had a right to receive education. Plato was of the view that there existed equilibrium between men and women, despite the women being weaker,

Marketing of Services Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Marketing of Services - Term Paper Example Research has shown that the design of a services cape influences a customer’s expectation, choice, satisfaction and other behaviour. The four strategic roles service scopes are as follows: Package The service scape and other physical evidence wrap the service so that it conveys a clear message to the consumers of what is inside. It is just like packaging a tangible product. The physical setting of a service essentially does the same thing through the interaction of the complex stimuli. The service scape is essentially the outward appearance of an organisation and hence it is critical in forming the first impression of customer expectation. Facilitator The service scape can aid in the performances of the persons in the environment. The design of the services cape can enhance or inhibit the efficient flow of the activities in the service setting. Thus it makes it easier or harder for the employees and the customers to accomplish their respective goals. A well designed functional facility can make a customer experience pleasure while an inefficient and poor design can frustrate both the employees and the customers. Socializer The design of a service scape can help in the socialization of both the employees and the customers. ... Any changes in the physical environment can be used to signal reposition a firm or to target new market segment. Question 2 Global business environment has become highly competitive as several organizations within the global business environment are implementing unique business operation strategies in order to gain potential competitive advantages. Several service providing organizations always try to ensure high quality customer service in order to develop potential customer base. It is true that high engagement service providing organizations need not have to concern about the issues of customer loyalty. Now-a-days, consumers always demand effective customer service from the organizations against their money. Satisfied customers always intend to stick with the brand or the organization. The do not try to take the risk of switch over another brand. Several service engagement organizations used to focus on strong and effective customer relationship management practices in order to re tain its existing potential customer base. However, these organizations have to focus on developing new client base as the business environment in this world is becoming competitive and saturated. People are becoming loyal to particular brands due to high satisfaction from the offered services. Therefore, it is highly important for the organizations to attract the new customers who have never experienced about the services of other service providers. It is quite easy for an organization to gain customer loyalty of a new and inexperienced customer about different service. If the customer chose another brand then it will be difficult for that organization to attract the particular customers. High service engagement firms should not

Human Organ Supply and Its Relation to the Social Stratification Research Paper

Human Organ Supply and Its Relation to the Social Stratification Theory - Research Paper Example Those who benefit are the rich who can afford to pay for the surgery and the cost of human organs. On the other hand, although some transplants were out of the donation coming from willing donors or were as a result of accidents which allow for the recovery of human organs from an accident victim to be transferred, there have been reports wherein the poor became the victims of this â€Å"transaction†. This is linked to the Social Stratification Theory. Those who have little in life become the victims, while those who are in the upper class or society look towards the poor for their source of human organs. How Sociologists Have Recognized Social Stratification People are identified, classified, perceived, and understood in a way that society has given corresponding positions for individuals, races, organizations or communities. The moment a person’s status in society is known, he or she is treated with actions or reactions that are known to be fit for the person. Accordi ng to Davis and Moore; Novick and Cullen Social stratification is a set of verifiable, interrelated thoughts, understanding, and behaviour among people whereby members of society consider positions or status and identify themselves in one of those categories. Davis and Moore were described by Novick, S. and Cullen, J. (1979, p. 1424) to have considered the differences as necessary for critical reasons. They proposed that inequality characterizes the groups or class wherein each person belongs or identifies him to be a part of. Furthermore, they believe that the maintenance of functions and positions is necessary in order to have stability. From the point of view of Davis, Kingsley and Moore, Wilbert (1970) difficult jobs must necessarily receive higher incentives in terms of higher compensation. The inequality is based on the fact that every individual has a different set of talents. Some talents are more valuable other talents, just as some functions have greater value in society t han the other functions. Because of scarcity and difference in value of some talents, rewards or compensation to acquire the people with valuable talents are greater while other talents are offered smaller rewards. According to Joseph Turek The book edited by Joseph Turek was entitled â€Å"Income Inequality and Social Stratification†. It gathered insights from various sectors (socio-economic, political, sociology, and philosophy) to clarify the variety of human differences which result in social stratification. As a result of differences in a person’s status in society, there is also a disparity in the income or compensation which leads to the formation of rich and poor. According to Wendy Bottero The book entitled â€Å"Stratification: Social Division & Inequality† is about â€Å"Who gets what.† It also describes the fact that the present time inequality gives some people better choices in life. â€Å"Money, power, or influence give those who possess t hem greater control over the external forces which affect us all, and open doors which might otherwise be closed.† (Bottero 2005, p. 3). The Demand & Critical Importance of Human Organ Donation A. Gap Between Supply and Demand The Economist (2008) reported that 7,000 Americans died due to absence of organs needed by patients. Out of 10 people who needed a kidney transplant, only one found a replacement kidney. There was a projected growth in the number of people who have to undergo dialysis and replacement of kidneys. 500,000 Americans in 2010 needed the transplant. In the UK, Nadey Hakim, an Ex-President of the International College of Surgeons, believed there was no other option for organ transplants because without it, the patient will die early although they can live longer if a replacement is made available for transplant. Kidneys are the most in

Essay on Law and Politics. Can the United Nations meet the key

On Law and Politics. Can the United Nations meet the key challenges facing the international community today - Essay Example Along with this evolution of humans and territories, the political setup, which ruled villages, also evolved and new political setups came into being, to rule cities, provinces or states and importantly countries. So, this evolution and establishment of different countries and their government setups have necessitated the formation of a single, omnipresent overseeing organization. The organization that will look after, how the various countries ‘interact’ in sensitive issues, collude in issues which are detrimental to the third country, their internal affairs etc, etc- the list is an lengthy one. In total, a global government to govern the entire globe or world was the need of the hour and so United Nations (UN) was established in 1945. But, the image of ‘global government’ was compromised by the unilateral actions of few countries. So, this paper will discuss how UN despite this contemporary challenge of unilateralism by some countries is still relevant and optimally functioning with the tag of global government UN was started or raised from the ruins of the Second War mainly as an international organization that can prevent any further occurrence of World wars and to look after the basic issues concerning the world population. On 25 April 1945, the ‘seeding’ for the UN was ‘laid’ in San Francisco, when the UN Conference on International Organizations was held with representatives of national governments, non-governmental organizations and important leaders of the world countries participating in it. They were involved in the drafting the UN charter. That charter and thereby the United Nation Organization came into being two months later on June 26, 1945. Around 50 nations who attended the conference and provided their inputs for the drafting of the charter signed the charter, becoming UN members. In course of time, more countries joined it, raising its strength to over 200 countries, giving

Curriculum Development and Design Essay Example for Free

Curriculum Development and Design Essay These programs arose from the thinking of a group of pioneers who believed that the educational approach that had been developed by medical education innovators at McMaster University was also most relevant for the preparation of occupational therapists and physiotherapists. Consequently, a group of educators from both institutions, Mohawk College and McMaster University, combined their skills and created a vision that became the diploma programs in occupational therapy and physiotherapy. This approach was problem-based learning, and was used as the foundation for both programs from their inception to the present day, across three different iterations of curriculum. One of the key innovations to the way in which the college programs were taught was the combination of using faculty from both the university and college to teach all courses. In the 1980s, a degree completion program was launched that provided graduates of the diploma program a chance to upgrade their qualification to a bachelors degree from McMaster University. This was particularly important since the minimum credential for entry to practice had been raised to the baccalaureate level by the professional associations. In 1989, the program moved completely into the university setting and the graduates were granted a BHSc(PT) or BHSc(OT), a bachelor degree in health sciences. Ten years later, in 2000, candidates were admitted to the entrylevel masters programs in occupational therapy and physiotherapy. The Pedagogical Framework: Problem-based Learning As briefly referred to above, the occupational therapy and physiotherapy programs at McMaster University have a strong history with and legacy of problem-based learning. While the initial curriculum models were strongly influenced by the inaugural undergraduate medical curriculum, time and confidence presented opportunities to create our own models. These models reflect the special nuances of each discipline. Problem-based learning is recognized as having begun at McMaster University, in the medical curriculum, and was in response to critical concerns about the nature of more traditional learning models in medical curricula. The intention was to create an approach to teaching and learning that was learner-centered, yet based upon clear objectives and evaluation criteria. The key difference was the expectation that learners would be facilitated and guided rather than taught (Barrows and Tamblyn 1980; Neufeld 1983; Saarinen and Salvatori 1994). Both the occupational therapy and physiotherapy programs at McMaster University have embraced these ideas, although with differing degrees of connection and commitment to the original model. In fact, true problem-based learning models should naturally emerge from each individual context and culture. There is no â€Å"right† way although there is a growing recognition of a common set of principles and elements that can be applied to determine the â€Å"problembased-ness† of a learning environment (Maudesley 1994; Walton and Matthews 1989). Problem-based learning principles tend to become grouped in two distinct categories: first, the values upon which problem-based learning is based and second, some characteristics that are held in common understanding as being critical to the core of problem-based learning. Underlying values include: partnership, honesty and openness, mutual respect, and trust. Core characteristics incorporate: Chapter 2 Curriculum Development and Design 13 i Learning which is student/learner-centered i Faculty roles that are those of facilitator and guide i Learning scenarios which form the basis, focus, and stimulus for learning i New information and understanding that is acquired through self-directed learning (Baptiste 2003 p. 17) Consequently, there is a continuum of problem-based curricula from pure through hybrid models. The masters entry-level physiotherapy and occupational therapy programs at the School of Rehabilitation Science at McMaster University continue to be based upon problem-based principles. Although both programs are very different one from the other, there are also many common elements and approaches that are celebrated. Examples of these similarities are cited throughout this book, particularly in the chapters focusing on evidence-based practice and ethics education. Approaching the Task of Curriculum Renewal Perhaps one of the most overwhelming, yet exciting, tasks with which to be confronted is the opportunity and challenge of developing a new curriculum. This task is made even more daunting when circumstances provide a chance to do something different based on external forces and not a need to change because â€Å"something is broken†. Over the past few years, and in several years to come, many educational programs in rehabilitation science are facing this situation. The changing nature of the entry-level credential for occupational therapists and physiotherapists demands that faculty undertake a detailed review of curricula, to determine the optimal approach to moving toward graduate-level preparation, or, at the very least, complete a review of existing curricula models to identify their responsiveness and congruence with emerging practice expectations and demands. Approaches to such a massive task can vary from ensuring the preservation of what is good from the existing curriculum to making a total shift and adopting a radically Table 2. 1. Principles for curricular change and innovation Rationale should be articulated explicitly Overall goals should be reiterated constantly throughout the process Continuing communication is essential, coupled with a clear rationale Ensure that the intended change is in response to a defined and recognized need or purpose Ensure that the innovation is seen as a high institutional priority Focus on pedagogy and not on resources for implementation Foster strong leadership support Identify incentives for faculty participation Gain faculty buy-in for the curricular blueprint Involve the active teaching faculty throughout the process Anticipate potential barriers to change and develop strategies to address them Recognize the potential need for and value of negotiation Adapted from Guze (1995) 14 Sue Baptiste, Patricia Solomon 2 new approach and design. To have an optimal effect, options to be considered should bear relevance to the pervading culture of the institution and environment within which the curriculum is to thrive. Also, decisions must be made concerning the pedagogical choices of how learner-centered the curriculum should be, and what particular educational modalities are the best for the circumstances. This chapter will address the entire picture of curriculum development and design, from the first conversations about how to engage in the renewal process through making decisions about methods of teaching, approaches to learner assessment, and preparation of entry-level practitioners for the emerging practice contexts. Guze (1995) provided a clear and succinct discussion of several core principles that can guide curricular change and innovation (Table 2. 1). The following is an overview of these principles. Where to Begin? Motivation for curriculum renewal can come from both internal and external forces. External expectations from regulatory and professional bodies are tending to impose standards for new practitioners that require: i Preparation at an advanced level of clinical reasoning and judgment i The ability to assume roles that require autonomy and a strong sense of professional ethics i Engaging in their professional role from the first day of practice, in a conscious nd moral manner that requires reflection and self-awareness Regardless of whether the motivation for curricular change stems from a desire to do something differently or better, or from outside influences, the task is one that requires careful planning. However, it is imperative that any planning process recognizes the need to dream and envision what could be, to create a model that will exemplify those visions, and to produce a graduate who is well prepared to face the complexities and challenges of emerging practice. When developing a curriculum, four general questions must be asked: i What is the purpose of the curriculum? i What educational experiences can be created to fulfill this purpose? What is the most effective manner in which to organize these educational experiences? i How can we determine that the purpose has been fulfilled and the goals attained (Wiers et al. 2002)? Another very critical element of any change is the recognition that the cultural context is a key in managing change successfully. Hafferty (1998), when reflecting upon the realities of a medical school curriculum, discusses the existence of informal and hidden curricula as well as the formal curriculum. He posits that, in order to induce a lasting change, the entire organizational culture needs to be engaged to facilitate stud ents and faculty alike in embracing and working with change. When facing the task of curricular reform, redesign has to occur not only in terms of content, but also in relation to the Chapter 2 Curriculum Development and Design 15 educational processes that enable the learning to take place. This is the difference between reforming the syllabus and reforming the curriculum; the overall learning environment of the educational program and institution is changed (Burton and McDonald 2001). Once the decision has been made to reform the curriculum, a first step is to complete an environmental scan and situational analysis that explore the educational and organizational environment within the institution, to determine what will facilitate the proposed changes. By defining a clear and newly articulated set of riorities and guidelines, changes that are being made within the curriculum will be given the vehicle through which impact can be made upon the surrounding environment (Genn 2001). This strategy is part of the first overall phase, the planning p hase. This is when the need for change is established and the vision for change is designed. It is during this phase of development that the non-negotiable elements of structure and process are determined. For example, within the School of Rehabilitation Science at McMaster University, both the Physiotherapy and Occupational Therapy Programs were already designed as two-year, twenty-four-month, curricula. Also, the province of Ontario mandates that all masters programs are two years in duration. Therefore, the decision was readily made, based on these graduate program regulations and history, that the new masters entry-level curricula would be twenty-four months long. One key commitment was clear and that was to the foundational philosophy of problem-based, selfdirected learning utilizing the application of these principles to small group, large group, and skills-based learning experiences. Wiers et al. (2002) provide a clear and helpful outline of ten general steps of curriculum design within a problem-based learning context (see Table 2. 2). While this rubric is structured around the specific processes inherent within problem-based learning development, most of the guidelines can apply broadly across any curricular development process within any pedagogical framework. From the onset, all faculty members at McMaster University were on board regarding the need to undertake the development of entry-level masters curricula in both occupational therapy and physiotherapy. Both disciplines had undergone dramatic changes in the preceding two decades, largely focused upon the growth of foundational science and evidence for practice. Professional practice models had emerged for both professions and provided a strong backdrop against which to create fresh ap- Table 2. 2. Ten general steps in curriculum design for a problem-based learning (PBL) environment 1. . 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Give rationale for the curriculum and form a planning group Generate general educational objectives for the curriculum Assess the educational needs o f future students Apply general principles of PBL to the curriculum Structure the curriculum and generate a curriculum blueprint Elaborate the unit blueprints Construct the study units Decide on student assessment methods Consider the educational organization and curriculum management model Evaluate the curriculum and revise as appropriate Adapted from Wiers et al. (2002) 16 Sue Baptiste, Patricia Solomon 2 proaches to the preparation of graduates for entering practice. While both the occupational therapy and physiotherapy programs undertook curriculum renewal at the same time, the physiotherapy program had engaged in an ongoing process of change across the preceding five years. Many of the issues, concerns, and changes addressed and implemented by the occupational therapy program had already been addressed by physiotherapy. Therefore, this chapter will focus predominantly upon the initiatives inherent within the curricular shift within occupational therapy, although reference will be made to processes within physiotherapy as appropriate. Designing Our New Programs Deciding upon the overarching constructs that would determine the final curriculum model was a complex and dramatic process in many ways, and one in which everyone was eager to participate and have a chance to have input. At the onset of the development of the occupational therapy program, three faculty retreats were held that progressed from a totally unstructured brainstorm of what would be perfect, to a detailed accounting of core curricular elements in the context of a delivery structure. In the initial retreat, all full-time faculty members together with some part-time members participated in a â€Å"blue-skying† day-long session during which everyone spoke of their dreams for the perfect curriculum. What if we could do what we wanted? What if we did not have to be concerned with logistics like room bookings? – and so on. This exercise provided us with a high-level ppreciation of the values and elements that were important to us as a collective. It was from this beginning â€Å"fantasy† that the next level of planning emerged. The second retreat was more structured and focused upon the creation of a continuum for learning that resulted in the overarching framework for the cur riculum, together with the delivery methods. A process was followed whereby we decided upon a central construct around which the whole curriculum would evolve, namely, â€Å"occupation†. To support this core notion, there were several longitudinal conceptual threads that represented continua of thought such as: wellness to illness, simplicity to complexity, local to global, and unifaceted to multifaceted. Through this process, we were able to identify the starting place for the first study term, and to create a high-level framework for the progression of the total curriculum (see Table 2. 3) In physiotherapy, the process began similarly with a faculty retreat; however, the focus varied slightly. Initial discussions identified elements of the curriculum that we Table 2. 3. Occupational therapy curricular framework Term 1 2 3 4 5 6 Content theme Wellness, health, and occupation Person, environment, and occupation Development, disability, and occupation Youth and the development of self Adulthood and disability Complexities of contemporary practice Chapter 2 Curriculum Development and Design 17 alued and wanted to maintain and those needing less emphasis. Through ongoing curricular evaluation and feedback, we identified new areas that needed to be included in the emerging curriculum and other areas that needed to be enhanced. These areas were discussed within the context of the changing practice of physiotherapy and the knowledge and skills required by the physiotherapist in the new millennium. The decision was made to use a curricular framework that incorporated a modified â€Å"body systems† design, as current physiotherapy practice and clinical specialties were aligned with this model. Inclusion of a Community Practice/Community Health unit allowed or a focus on emergent health care roles in the community and on integrating health promotion and disease prevention into practice. The faculty recognized that while many physiotherapists identified their practice in an area related to the body systems, increasingly clinicians were faced with more complex patients with multiple system involvement. Hence, the final unit of study focused on integrated practice dealing with clients with complex multisystem health care problems. Following the initial planning process, it is now time to initiate the plan. It is during this time period that the â€Å"unfreezing† of old organizational patterns and the introduction of innovations into the educational environment take place (Burton and McDonald 2001). Often, while there is a strong commitment to engaging in the conversations that lead to the design of a changed reality, it is a very different matter to start â€Å"doing† and actually making that changed reality come to life. A cooperative internal environment is essential for the realization of that initial dream and therefore it is well worthwhile for planners to engage in a transparent and collaborative experience that enables maximum participation and open debate. A process of this nature is characterized by collaborative problem solving, effective communication, abilities in conflict resolution, and a cultural expectation of working together in harmony that guides the overall enterprise (Burton and McDonald 2001). Therefore, it is of importance to determine at the onset the values and behaviors by which the development experience will be approached to set up structures and processes that will ensure that the best attempts at making it so will be expended. During the initiation period, we experienced intense interest and levels of emotion from all participants regarding the manner in which the planning and the visions for the two disciplines would be evolved and realized. As mentioned previously, we had determined that the existing problem-based learning principles would remain but that the key changes would be realized through the manner in which the content was introduced to the students and through which the continuum of learning would evolve. Similarly, we were committed to maintaining a student-centered approach. One core difference was to be the manner in which the experiential component of professional preparation would be integrated more centrally into both curricula. Previously, the curricula were designed in a more traditional fashion whereby the clinical fieldwork experiences were placed at the end of each study term and were linked directly to the area of academic focus for the preceding learning block. By definition, once the overarching concepts of the curricula were determined to be different from the previous models, then fieldwork placements would become less strictly aligned. This was reinforced more heavily in the occupational therapy program which was originally designed around developmental stages and central practice populations. Students would face a more eclectic approach in their clinical learning; therefore, both programs determined that learning around professional issues and practice expectations should be interwoven through the longitudinal axis of the curriculum. 18 Sue Baptiste, Patricia Solomon Redevelopment Within a Problem-based Learning Culture 2 As with any problem-based learning system, the small group learning unit is the nucleus of the whole curriculum. However, the success of problem-based, small group learning is supported by the strategic use of large group interactions for the imparting of theoretical and expert knowledge, while still maintaining a problem-based learning philosophy. Similarly, the application of problem-based learning principles is a critical piece of one-on-one learning and synthesis of knowledge and information throughout the academic and clinical components of the curriculum overall. Both the physiotherapy and occupational therapy programs elected to continue to utilize problem-based learning methods in a manner that celebrated the development already achieved over twenty-five years of curriculum development. This has evolved over time very differently in each program. For example, during the planning process for the occupational therapy curriculum, efforts were made to define new models for tutoring and many were identified and put into place. During the second year of the occupational therapy program, the problem-based tutorials occur only once weekly. This allows additional scheduling time for including the evidence-based practice courses and is also in response to the difficulties many practitioners are experiencing in gaining release time from employers to participate as tutors. In this new tutorial model, tutors are required to participate in only one weekly session with two or three tutors’ meetings across the term instead of weekly. Application of problem-based learning principles in large groups has been maintained and, in fact, enhanced particularly in the clinical skills sessions. Students often are placed in small groups (different groups from their core tutorial group) and provided with opportunities to explore assessment tools and intervention methods. Through these group experiences, the students apply a problem-based learning approach to the identification of learning issues, the uncovering of essential information and resources, and the synthesis of their understanding of the tool or technique. Integration of Experiential Practice Preparation Within a Problem-based Learning Framework As mentioned earlier, both the physiotherapy and occupational therapy faculty groups were committed to ensuring the integration of academic and experiential learning into the curricula from the beginning, and were focused on developing innovative models for the synthesis of practice preparation into the core academic units. It is important to note that the work related to integration commenced at the very onset of the curriculum planning process. In the case of the occupational therapy program, there had always been sessions held throughout the full curriculum that provided opportunities for the Clinical Placement Coordinator (now Professional Practice Coordinator) to inform, advise, educate, and monitor students in preparing for their practice experiences and in checking in with them following these experiences. However, a greater focus on such integration was placed within the masters entry-level curriculum model in order to ensure that students were being prepared to meet the enhanced expectations of a graduate program. Chapter 2 Curriculum Development and Design 19 Evaluation Within a Graduate Problem-based Learning Framework There should be clear and close linkages between how students learn and how that learning is assessed. Therefore, some information will be presented here relative to the evaluation methods developed at McMaster University in the occupational therapy and physiotherapy programs. Student Evaluation. In the preceding years, the two programs at McMaster University had been very involved in designing evaluation/student assessment tools that reflected the principles of problem-based learning and provided students with opportunities to integrate their academic learning with their growing professional awareness and identity. Most of these tools are built around the basic problem-based learning process of exploring a learning scenario that has been developed to address the objectives for the particular learning unit. Essentially, problem-based evaluation needs to be congruent with the underlying values and principles of problem-based learning. Traditional methods of assessing students’ knowledge tend to be contradictory to these principles and therefore should not be applied out of context. Problem-based learner assessment should: i Be congruent with the underlying problem-based learning process illustrated by the development of learning scenarios based on real life practice situations i Mirror the problem-based learning process of reflecting on a practice scenario, efining learning issues, researching, synthesizing, and synopsizing the learning with application to the defined case i Involve personal reflection and enhanced awareness of individual critical think- ing and clinical reasoning skills F aculty Evaluation. As with student assessment, the evaluation of faculty is central to the maintenance and enhancement of a problem-based learning culture. And, similarly, faculty evaluation is built into the roles played in any given learning context. In the case of the small group tutor role, faculty members are evaluated by each student and provide a self-evaluation to students during the course of the group process. Following the completion of the small group experience, students evaluate the faculty member as well as the overall course, and these ratings are provided to faculty and placed in their file for attention at times when promotion, tenure, and merit increase decisions are made. For those faculty members, practitioners, and others who facilitate large group sessions in both theory and practical skills, similar evaluations are completed. This process has been in place over many years and has not changed since the advent of the new curricula. However, the items being evaluated have altered to reflect the expected level and scope of graduate teaching. Student Self-assessment: Development of the OTPPI. Students admitted into the occupational therapy program are not expected to have any prerequisite courses completed during their undergraduate education. This has been the case from the very beginning. In the program itself, there are no formal courses that provide students with basic knowledge related to the foundational sciences that underlie occupational therapy practice such as anatomy, physics, biochemistry, sociology, psychology, and anthropology. It has been the long-held belief that in a pure problem-based learning 20 Sue Baptiste, Patricia Solomon 2 environment, the learning is accomplished through the horizontal meshing of various areas of knowledge and information; that through the integration of these sciences and bodies of knowledge, students can gain the understanding they require by using real life situations as springboards for integration and synthesis of all inputs. Consequently, recent efforts were expended to develop the Occupational Therapy Personal Progress Inventory (OTPPI), a tool that was developed from the experience of the undergraduate medical program over the past few years (Blake et al. 1996; Cunnington 2001). The OTPPI focuses on foundational knowledge that our students need in order to become practicing occupational therapists. It is not a test of the application of that knowledge in practice. The examination consists of 90 multiple-choice questions developed with the expectation that a â€Å"star† student would be able to answer by the time of graduation. There are three main domains included in each examination: biology (this includes anatomy, physiology, etc. ), social sciences (this includes psychology, sociology, anthropology, etc. ), and research (this includes statistics, research methods, ethics, etc. ). The breakdown of each examination is 40 percent biology, 40 percent social science, and 20 percent research. The examination is generated each term and students in both years have the same examination, with the expectation that the students in second year will achieve a higher result than those in the first year. Students receive a detailed report with their scores and a profile of how they have progressed over time. They are provided with information about their total score as well as a breakdown on each of the three domains. They also receive a zone score, which is an indication of how well they have performed on the test in comparison to the other members of the class. Students in the yellow or red zones may want to review their scores in more detail and make learning plans to address gaps that may have been identified through the examination. This tool is designed as a self-assessment measure, the individual results of which are known only to each student. We have made a conscious choice that results are not used in the summative evaluation of the students, and are intended to provide the learners with a sense of how they are progressing in accumulating knowledge relative to the basic sciences of their discipline. The students are expected to use that information to set plans in place to address weaknesses (e. g. , through problem-based tutorials, individual assignments, etc. ). The OTPPI has been a pencil and paper test so far, but steps are being taken to convert it to a web-based format. While the occupational therapy program has undertaken this initiative on a pilot basis, initial responses would indicate that students are finding the process helpful to them, although this is very new at the time of publication. Integration of Evidence-based Practice Skills into the Curricula. The integration of skills related to practicing in an evidence-based manner is seen to be critical to both programs. A detailed description of the models adopted by the occupational therapy and physiotherapy programs is found in Chapter 5. In both programs, there is a strong commitment to evidence-based practice as a central onstruct for the curriculum and a natural partner for client-centered and problem-based principles. Conclusion Since their inception, the masters entry-level programs in occupational therapy and physiotherapy have presented opportunities to revisit our history and legacy in health sciences education. In order to reflect on the overall process, the general steps for curriculum design offered by Wiers et al. (2002) will be revisited (see Table 2. 2). Chapter 2 Curriculum Development and Design 21 For us, the rationale for the curriculum was clear both from an internal and an external perspective, and the notion of forming a planning group was a natural approach to the task. Our profound commitment to involving our broad academic community was illustrated through the involvement of a wide range of individuals encompassing full-time, part-time, and sessional faculty members as well as members of the wider practice community. Such involvement was realized throughout the planning process and continues through such individuals’ representation on our Education, Curriculum and Admissions committees. The need to define clear general educational objectives for the curriculum was also recognized at a very early stage. We found that being able to determine the goals and directions from the outset served to facilitate the planning that followed. Assessing the educational needs of future students was assisted by our own knowledge concerning the entry-level competencies demanded by our professional regulatory colleges. Also, the connections we have with our practice communities and past graduates were invaluable in providing a background for determining the shifts necessary within the curriculum to fulfill practice expectations. Similarly, the same thoughtful reasoning was used to consider the differences of teaching and learning between undergraduate and graduate approaches to education. Applying general principles of problem-based learning to the curriculum was not a concern for us, given our long history of internalizing this philosophy. Specific difficulties arose when converting the undergraduate courses and assessment tools to the needs of a graduate program. Nevertheless, problem-based learning in many ways is a gift for this transition since it resembles closely the natural proclivities of graduate work – smaller groups, self-directedness, learner autonomy, and a degree of freedom to determine learning directions. Structuring the curriculum and creating a blueprint became different experiences for physiotherapy and occupational therapy. As mentioned previously, while the planning processes looked ostensibly similar, the manner in which the final curricular models were derived was very different (see Tables 2. 3 and 2. 4). However, after the master models were created, the processes for elaborating the blueprints and constructing study units were again very similar. Methods of student assessment tended to remain grounded in the familiar processes and tools that we had developed across our history with problem-based learning. However, as each curricular element emerged throughout the planning (e. g. , evidence-based practice, ethics, clinical skills, fieldwork) so did innovative ways to enhance the student assessment processes that were already strong. Details of these innovations will be discussed in the book chapters relating to these specific areas. Consideration of the educational organization and curriculum management model required particular attention since our lines of accountability had shifted, with the Table 2. 4. Physiotherapy curricular framework Unit 1 2 3 4 5 6 Content theme Fundamentals of physiotherapy practice Fundamentals of musculoskeletal practice Fundamentals of cardiorespiratory and neurological practice Advanced neurological practice Community practice Integrated practice and professional transition 22 Sue Baptiste, Patricia Solomon 2 move to the School of Graduate Studies. Two slightly different models of governance emerged, with the Admissions Committee being the only shared group between physiotherapy and occupational therapy. However, both governance models reflect a central group responsible and accountable for curriculum and another group that oversees general program functioning. Curricular evaluation remains an ongoing responsibility and expectation. Chapter 13 provides a particular model for curriculum evaluation that was used by the occupational therapy program, the Program Logic Model. However, there are many ways in which faculty members can retain a clear image of what makes up a curriculum and what indicators are critical to evaluate for the success of the program overall. The three years of planning and launching the new curricula at McMaster University were years of extremely hard work, high energy and output. As we see each student cohort graduate, and receive feedback concerning our students and graduates in practice settings, we feel heartened that we appear to be on the right track. We know, however, that curriculum development is an ongoing process.

Behavioural Approach Essay Example for Free

Behavioural Approach Essay The behavioural approach suggests that all behaviour is learnt. This includes abnormal behaviours. Behaviours can be learned through classical conditioning, operant conditioning or modelling. Ivan Pavlov discovered classical conditioning, where learning results from the association of stimuli with reflex responses. Classical conditioning can be used to explain the development of many abnormal behaviours, including phobias, anxiety disorders and taste aversions. An example of how classical conditioning might result in a phobia is the case of Little Albert. In an experiment carried out by Watson and Rayner, a 11 month old boy called ‘little Albert’ was taught to fear a white rat through associating it with a loud noise, a symbol behind his head. Each time he played with the rat the symbol would be hit which caused him to cry. Eventually he would do so even without the noise due to the classical conditioning theory. This research however, would not receive approval from an ethics committee today because it would be seen as unethical. Making the baby cry deliberately and teaching him to fear the rat would be seen as wrong because it could cause distress and would go against ‘little Alberts’ human rights. The theory of operant conditioning was proposed by Skinner. Operant conditioning involves learning from the consequences of actions. Actions which have a good outcome through positive reinforcement (reward) or negative reinforcement (removal of something bad) will be repeated. Actions which have a bad outcome (punishment) will not be repeated. Operant conditioning explains how abnormal behaviours might be maintained. This could be through positive reinforcement; behaviours which have a good outcome by bringing some sort of reward are said to be positively reinforced. On the other hand it could be down to negative reinforcement which is behaviours which have a good outcome by removing something unpleasant are said to be negatively reinforced. Finally, abnormal behaviours could also be learnt through modelling or social learning, which is learning through observation of an individual. What happens is simply an individual models the behaviour and the observer imitates the model. A strength of the behavioural approach is that it can be experimentally tested. The principles of learning have been and continue to be tested empirically in a laboratory. The focus on observable behaviour means it can be objectively measured. A further strength is that unlike the psychodynamic approach, it doesn’t require delving into the past, which is problematic because it could unearth traumatic experiences which can produce unreliable data. However, those who support the psychodynamic approach suggests the behavioural model only focuses on symptoms, not on the underlying causes of abnormal behaviour. Freudians claim it treats the symptoms while ignoring the root cause of the problem. Therefore it cannot work as the problem will just represent itself with different symptoms. Whereas, the biological approach cannot explain cultural differences in abnormality such as culture-bound syndromes, a strength of the behavioural approach is that it can account for this because It accounts for cultural differences because it recognises the importance of the environment in shaping behaviour. While behavioural treatments are often effective for certain disorders such as obsessive-compulsive disorder and phobias, they have not been found to be effective for many other disorders and have also often been criticised for being unethical because treatment is often painful and uncomfortable and is sometimes imposed on individuals without their consent. The behavioural approach is accused of being reductionist and simplistic. This is because it’s a simple approach with connections of stimulus. It neglects the influence of cognitions (The mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought and experience). A further limitation is that much behaviourist research involves animal studies. While behaviourists argue that humans are fundamentally the same as non-human animals, others would argue that the greater complexity of the human mind makes it difficult to generalise findings from animal studies to humans. Overall the behaviourist approach shows all behaviour to be learnt through our experiences. It states that this learning can either be learnt through classical or operant condition and also the social learning theory. It can be experimentally tested and proven which makes the approach credible however it can be seen just to treat the symptoms of a abnormal behaviour rather than looking at the cause.

The National Development Of The Philippines Commerce Essay

The National Development Of The Philippines Commerce Essay Necessity is the mother of invention. In the Philippines, there are many local inventions created by Filipinos that are locally and even globally used for its functionality and its usefulness. In fact, there are numerous inventions patented in the Philippines. According to the Filipino Inventors Society, there are about 3000 patent holders and intellectual property exponents nationwide. Despite this number, there is not much recognition coming from the Filipinos themselves as some of the inventions that are considered useful are not really used commercially in the Philippines. In lieu of this, the Philippine Government has provided laws on promoting and protecting local inventions. Among these laws are the Investors and Invention Incentives Act (RA 7459), Philippine Inventors Incentives Act (RA 3850) and the Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines. These laws are created in the belief that there are linkages among the development of science and technology, particularly the technological advancement through inventions, with national economic development. This paper aims to prove if there is a significant implication of local inventions to national development in the context of the Philippines. As well as to analyze the current situation of the local inventions in the Philippines and the concepts to which it revolves such as the laws governing patents and intellectual property. Today local inventors and inventions alike are slowly decreasing due to several problems that they encounter while in the process of inventing. These problems to name a few are; lack of exposure from the media, lack of proper implementation of laws and policies regarding inventors and inventions, the need for more awareness and information regarding patents and the commercialization process. The numerous problems that an inventor encounters are what hinder him from potentially affecting national development and highlighting the innate talents of a Filipino from both the local and foreign market. According to Carmen Peralta, Director of the IPO Information, Documentation and Technology Transfer Bureau, if only given the needed exposure, inventors would be inspired to work harder that would eventually translate to more patents. The short number of patent applications and the much needed lack of support from the media in terms of recognition and endorsement is a reason for immediate action on both the government and the media. The lack of public exposure is what keeps local inventors away from possibly inducing technological change in national development. B. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM This study will answer the main problem: How can local inventions induce technological change for National Development? In answering the main problem several sub-problems or sub-questions needs to be accounted first. a) What are the current issues regarding local inventions? b) How does the government support local inventions? c) What model is necessary to analyze local inventions, technological change, and national development? C. HYPOTHESIS Local Invention: Ho: Government support does not contribute to the development of local invention H1: Government support contributes to the development of local invention National Development: Ho: Local Inventions has no significant implication to National Development H1: Local Inventions has a significant implication to National Development. D. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK In this paper we used one of the first frameworks in comprehending science and technology which is the Linear model of innovation (Godin, 2006) in compliance with Vernon W. Ruttans study entitled; Usher and Shumpeter on Invention, Innovation and Technological change*1959. In line with the study of Ruttan, he assumed that most of the social scientist follows a certain sequence in which invention, innovation and technological change are ordered in a logical sequence (Ruttan, 1959). InventionÆ’Â   InnovationÆ’Â   Technological Change After generalizing the proper sequence assumed by most social scientist in the past, he then solved the terminological problem between invention, innovation and technological change by synthesizing two prominent studies in linear model of innovation by Usher and Shumpeter. V. W Ruttan insinuated a fusion of A. P. Ushers steps in the invention process (Usher 1954) and Schumpeters concept of innovation (Godin, 2006). Shumpeter distinguishes invention from innovation. Innovation is possible without anything we should identify as invention, and invention does not necessarily induce innovation, but produces of itself no economically relevant effect at all.6 According to Ruttan, Schumpeters definition of innovation is in terms of a change in the form of the production function (Ruttan, 1959). We will now define innovation more rigorously by means of the production function. This function describes the way in which quantity of products varies if quantity of factors vary. If, instead of quantities of factors we vary the form of the function, we have an innovation.7 Ruttan eliminated the distinction between invention and innovation as he discusses Ushers steps in invention process but incorporated the idea of defining innovation by means of production function. This is where the synthesis came about (Ruttan, 1959). The definition of invention by Usher is in terms of new things that require an act of insight going beyond the normal exercise of technical or professional skill (Ruttan, 1959). Inventive acts of insight are unlearned activities that result in new organizations of prior knowledge and experience.6 Such acts of insight frequently emerge in the course of performing acts of skill, though characteristically the act of insight is induced by the conscious perception of an unsatisfactory gap in knowledge or mode of action.7 In the Chapter IV of the revised edition of A History of Mechanical Innovations, Usher was said to discourse on the occurrence of ones inventions in contrast with the performance of acts of skill by the use of cumulative synthesis (Ruttan, 1959). With this discussion, Ruttan concluded that it is more applicable to give the definition of invention as a subsection of innovation and shifting Ushers description of invention to innovation-Indeed, it would be more in line with both popular usage and the terminology of other disciplines to use the term innovation to designate any new thing in the area of science, technology, or art (Ruttan, 1959). The definition of technological change used by students of productivity and technological change is said to have a close similarity with the definition of innovation provided by Shumpeter. Compare, for example, a recent definition by Solow with the above quotation from Schumpeter. (Ruttan, 1959). If Q represents output and K and L represent capital and labor in physical units, then the aggregate production function can be written as: Q = F(K, L; t) the variable t . . . appears in F to allow for technical change. I am using the phrase technical change as a shorthand expression for any kind of a shift in the production function.9 According to Ruttan, the only problem with this definition of technological change is that it does not emphasize the specific process of technological change. Thus a need for a proper analytical definition is a must. After providing a clear distinction between invention, innovation and technological change, Ruttan gave three prominent suggestions in this study namely; first one must not attempt to provide an analytical definition of invention and depict it as a subset of technical innovation which is patentable. Second, the extension of the definition of innovation is needed so much as to cover the entire range of processes by which new things emerge in science, technology, and art. Third, The use of technological change in the functional sense- to designate changes in the coefficients of a function relating inputs to outputs resulting from the practical application of innovations in technology and in economic organization (Ruttan, 1959). In compliance to the study of Ruttan, the linear model of innovation will be use as suggested in Ruttans study. The linear model of innovation starts with basic research, then adds applied research and development, and ends with production and diffusion (Ruttan, 1959): Basic research Æ’Â   Applied research Development Æ’Â   (Production and) Diffusion In function: Innovation = Basic research+Applied research development+Diffusion It has been noted that the source of this linear model has remain indefinable because it has never been documented. Despite its widespread use, there are still many criticisms that surround the theory and even proclaiming it as a dead model. The long survival of the model despite regular criticisms is because of statistics (Godin, 2006). Overall, we will be using the definitions and suggestions provided by Ruttan. We will not provide an analysis on invention. We will use the linear model of innovation for the analysis of innovation as suggested by Ruttan-extend the concept of innovation to cover the entire range of process by which new things emerge. We will use the provided definition of the technological change, by Solow, in Ruttans study in order to analyze invention to national economy. The linear model of innovation in compliance to V.W. Ruttan study of 1958 is a proper framework for this paper. This paper analytically analyzed innovation and technical change of the Philippine local invention as suggested by Ruttan. Also, the simpleness of the linear model can be a proper starting point in analyzing insufficient data availability such as the condition of the Philippine local invention. E. EMPIRICAL FRAMEWORK In this paper we attempt to analyze innovation, as defined in Ruttans 1959 study, and technological change of Philippine local invention in the year 1900-2010. In analyzing innovation we will use the linear model of innovation particularly the one that was defined by Ruttan in his 1959 study. Linear model of innovation X = f(B,A,D) X: Innovation B: Basic research A: Applied research D: Diffusion Empirical framework X= f(D,E,F,G) X: #of local invention D: # of scientist and engineer E: Annual RD expenditures/ government allocated funds F: # of clients/beneficiaries G: # of commercialized local invention In analyzing technological change we will use Solows function for technological change. Solows Technological change function Q = F(K, L; t) Q: Aggregate output K: Capital L: Labor t: Technical change Empirical Framework Q=F(K,L,I; t) Q: GDP K: Invesments L: Labor force I: Local invention t: Technical Change F. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY Invention and innovation have proven to be crucial components for the development of modern societies (Marton-Lefà ¨vre, 2003). This study is important therefore in order to analyze the current status of the local inventions in the Philippines and its linkage to national development. Since it has always been based on the presence of necessity that inventions are created, there is always a need and a demand for inventions especially for the less developed countries that are in the process of industrialization. However, this demand for local invention is not quite evident in the Philippine market. This study therefore aims to analyze the current problems that local inventions face and analyze the effectiveness of the innovation system that we have in the Philippines. According to Johnson et al, the history and development of the innovation system concept indicates that it can be useful for analyzing less developed economies (Johnson, Edquist, Lundvall, 2003). This paper therefore, is significant in order for us to become aware of the current situation of the local inventions, its history and development in the Philippines in order to create solutions to its problems. This study is important also for us to know the impact of local inventions to our economy and be able to provide basis on the applicability of the concept that inventions, being the source of technological change, can lead to national development. F. SCOPE AND LIMITATION The study is limited to the local inventions that were given residential patent grants. This is to make sure that the local invention passed the criteria of IPPHIL and WIPO. This means that the local invention complies with the standard definition of invention by these two patent offices. The scope of the study in terms of commercialization process only includes local inventions that were licensed, venture and assigned. These three are the basic ways to commercialize an invention. The analysis of current issues in local inventions will be limited to the data provided by the annual report of TAPI-Technology application and promoting institute, the official government institute that helps local invention to be commercialized. The timeframe of the study is from 2000-2010. This is due to the lack of availability of some datas regarding local inventions. The area of the study is in the Philippine setting. Local inventions created by a Filipino with patent grant. CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE I. CURRENT SITUATION OF LOCAL INVENTION Local inventions comprised only 1.2% of over 8,000 patents granted by the IPO (Intellectual Property Office) of the Philippines over the last six years, indicating the lack of awareness on the value of IP rights (Flores, 2007) Currently there is a lack of patent applications as stated by the IPO by Filipino inventors who wish to patent their inventions, because of lack of awareness on the value of such patent rights, inventors tend to not apply at all. The lack of knowledge of Filipino inventors on such patent rights and exclusive incentives are one of the reasons of the small percentage of patent applications. The number one reason is the level of awareness on the availability of support services being provided by the IPO (Gefty, 2011) In order to solve the current problems of the Philippine local inventors, there have been laws existing to support and encourage the local inventions. One of which is the Republic Act 7459, or the Investors and Invention Incentives Act of the Philippines whose aim is to give priority to invention and its utilization on the countrys productive systems and national life; and to this end provide incentives to investors and protect their exclusive right to their invention, particularly when the invention is beneficial to the people and contributes to national development and progress. Some of its provisions are to give cash rewards amounting up to Php100,000.00 to the chosen outstanding inventors They also give tax incentives and exemptions as well as invention development assistance funds through the Technology Application and Promotion Institute in the amount of at least twelve percent (12%) of the annual operations fund of the Institute from donations, bequests, and other sources, public, private or domestic or foreign, for assisting potential or actual inventors in the initial experiments and prototype development and other invento r-development related activities of invention or innovation. Included in Article 5 of RA 7459 is the Invention Guarantee Fund created by RA no. 3850. A continuing annual appropriation in the amount of not less than Ten Million Pesos (P10, 000,000.00) shall also be provided for this purpose in the annual budget of the Department of Science and Technology. The Fund shall also be used for special financing programs for Filipino inventions pursuant under this Act. This also includes Financial and Loan Assistance from Government Banks of not more than Two-hundred Thousand Pesos (P200, 000.00). These are Loan assistance for the commercial production of an invention, either locally or for export and duly certified by the Filipino Inventors Society and the Screening Committee created under Section 4, shall be extended by government banks: Provided, That said invention meets the criteria that would enhance the economy of the country such as profitability and viability, dollar-earning capacity, and generation of employment opportunities for Filipinos: P rovided, further, That said loan shall be guaranteed by the IGF. II. THE PROCESS OF INVENTION It has been noted that we know in our hearts what an invention is and the idea of invention is said to have assumed a status like that of consciousness or mind, something we can express of but not quite articulate (Arthur, 2005). WIPO provided a definition of invention such as; a new product or process that solves a technical problem. Invention is an example of an intellectual property. Under the intellectual property, there are two categories namely; industrial property and copyright. Invention is categorized under industrial property. An invention must be patented in order to protect ones intellectual property rights. An invention must, in general, fulfil the following conditions to be protected by a patent. Before it can be patented, one invention must abide by the requirements of WIPO such as; It must be of practical use; it must show an element of novelty, meaning some new characteristic that is not part of the body of existing knowledge in its particular technical field and mus t show an inventive step that could not be deduced by a person with average knowledge of the technical field (WIPO, 2000). It has been emphasize that the single most important element of long term growth is the innovative activity (Rosenberg, 2004). This Innovative activity can be in terms of organization or production. Focusing on production, most of us will think about technological progress created by inventions. A handful of readings will indicate how important inventions are to our economy; in most of the developed country have economic indicators relating to technological progress. So much have been said about how important inventions are but only some will tell about how it came about. In the study conducted by Ruttan, he cited a study of Usher; recognizing and agreeing with the statements. In Ushers Chapter IV of the revised edition of A History of Mechanical Innovations, he identifies three general approaches on how invention came about; the transcendentalist, mechanistic process and the cumulative synthesis (Ruttan, 1959). According to Usher the transcendentalists ascribe the occurrence of invention to the occasional inspiration of a genius who from time to time realizes a direct knowledge of indispensable truth through the exercise of intuition. While the Mechanistic process represents a new combination of individual elements that accumulated over time. This process came about due to necessity and that the inventor is just an instrument of the processes. Among the three approaches on how invention came about, Usher believed and agreed with the cumulative synthesis-major inventions materialize through cumulative synthesis of simple inventions, each of which enta ils an individual act of insight. In case of individual invention, four steps were outlined: perception of the problem, setting the stage (the gathering of elements and data needed for the construction of the possible solution), the act of insight (the establishment of the solution to the problem) and critical revision (can be comprehended and working) (Ruttan, 1959). According to Usher, these three approaches are the possible logic behind how inventions are made, but at the same time criticizing the first two approaches and agreeing with the cumulative synthesis. The other way of looking on how invention came about is through a sociological and economical perspective. One author noted that novel technologies are influenced by social needs; they arise from experiences outside the standard domain; they often originated in cultures that reinforce risk; they retort to economic incentives (such as demand or factor price changes); they merge with the accumulation of scientific knowledge; they start better with the interchange of information which is often mediated by networks of colleagues (Arthur, 2005). Overall, the process of invention is compound, lengthy, determined, knowledge generating, boundary-transgressing, and notable for a number of other features (THE LEMELSON-MIT PROGRAM, 2004). Besides looking in the invention process per se, invention will not be around if not because of its creator, the inventor. There are a number of abilities and disposition that can be attributed to the production of invention such as; resourcefulness, resilience, a commitment to practical action, nonconformity, passion for the work, unquenchable optimism and many more. Skills and ability examples: mental flexibility, alertness to practical problems and opportunities, ability to match ones talents with the problem, using a tool kit of effective ways to conceptualize and break down the problems, and self-knowledge helpful in managing ones endeavours and etc (THE LEMELSON-MIT PROGRAM, 2004). After knowing the process of invention and sample skills of inventors, we must recognize the importance of RD in the invention process. As of today most of invention does not come from an individual but by groups such as research institute financed by the government or private firms. These institutes are normally called research and development (RD) institutes. According to OECD definition, Research and development is a term used in covering three activities: basic research, applied research, and experimental development. It has been said that the common role of RD is to encourage innovation and technology by improving the ability of firms to learn about advances in the leading edge (absorptive capacity) (Griffith, 2001). III. THE PROCESS OF COMMERCIALIZATION It is a given fact that the main goal of invention is to solve a problem by technical process with this the beneficiaries of the invention will be satisfied. But how about the inventor, aside from the sense of achievement and acknowledgement what can he benefit from his invention? Here lies the emphasis on the commercialization process of invention. There are different ways to commercialize ones invention; either through licensing, self-venture or assignment. It has been noted that In order to reach the market, you have to find someone who can sell your invention or sell it yourself (National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 1999). According to WIPO, Licensing occurs when a licensor grants exploitation rights over a patent to a licensee. A license is also a legal contract, and so it sets the terms and condition of the exchange of rights including other important details in using or producing ones invention (Mendes, 2000). Many inventors undertake licensing because of the huge amount of money that they can acquire and the level of responsibility is lower than using or selling your own invention (National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 1999). There are considerable pros and cons regarding the licensing process. Heres the summary: the pros; licensing multiplies the resources to develop your invention, you may make some money and you may make it soon, and licensing frees you to do something else. The cons; you lose control of the technology; your own involvement is reduced, finding the right licensee is tough and protecting your interests is crucial (National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 1999). It has been noted by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory in United States that venturing or commercializing your technology by yourself is probably the hardest path to take especially if one does not have a background about business and marketing. It requires a lot of business skills and connections in order to successfully commercialized ones invention. There are also pros and cons with the use of this process. The pros; running a company can be exciting, in the long run, you may make a lot more money and it is your company and you control it. The cons; its risky, resources remain limited, youll be working and working and you probably wont make much money for quite a while (National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 1999). In an assignment involves there is a trade and transmission of ownership of the patent by the assignor to the assignee (Mendes, 2000). It is probably the easiest way to commercialize an invention but in return the ownership of the patent does not belong to you and it is irrevocable. If you want a lump sum of money in an instant from your invention, this is probably the appropriate commercial process for you to use. Before an invention undergoes the process of commercialization, there are general prerequisites that are needed to be accomplished. First, it must be working, specifically an engineering prototype. Second, you should have a market analysis-you ask the basic questions in economics such as who, how, when, where and how much to produce. In addition, you need to know different market channels where your invention could reach. Last, a written plan-same as writing a business plan (National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 1999). There are two things that should be prioritized in order to lessen ones problem in the process of commercialization. An inventor must acknowledge the cost and sources of capital. Cost can be in the forms of money, time and personal life, while sources of capital can in forms of debt capital, government funds and equity capital (National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 1999). Overall, it seems that the commercialization of ones invention is one of the goals of an inventor. It is one of the preferred end points of such activity. A report emphasized the importance of commercialization of an invention and proclaimed it as a reward to the inventor. It also included the importance of relationship with different professions in order to make ones invention into the market-What good is an invention if it never makes it to market, or for that matter, I it never rewards its creator? Invention does not end with coming up with a new device or new process. It takes an equally adroit tenacity to form the relationships that will make the invention payoff (McPherson, 1995). Certain relationship must be established by the inventor with different business development professional in order to try making its invention into the market; maybe a patent attorney, market researcher, business development pro or perhaps an invention-marketing group (McPherson, 1995). IV. Government Support in Local Invention There are many government agencies as well as non-government organizations that support local inventions. Under the supervision of the Department of Science and Technology, is the establishment of the Technology Application Promotion Institute or TAPI. Its primary responsibility is to promote the commercialization of technologies and market the services of other operating units of the department (TAPI, 2008). Among others, TAPI also administers the Invention Development Assistance Fund for the initial experiments and prototype development and other invention-development related activities. Through this fund, TAPI has managed to conduct various programs that raise the level of awareness of various clients in the areas of technology application and utilization. Among these programs is the Academe/Industry Prototype Development Assistance Program which provides financial support for the fabrication and testing of commercial prototypes, the DOST Exposition and Fairs Program that promotes and exhibits technology materials, ideas and information, the Technology-Based Enterprise Development Assistance Program which gives financial assistance to technology-based micro, small and medium scale enterprises, the Investors Forum Program which brings together technology operators and investors to create actual business ventures, and many other programs that promotes and supports Philippine local inventions (TAPI, 2008). All these programs lie under the Technology Information and Promotion Division. Among various programs of the TAPI caters to agricultural enterprises, manufacturing firms, students and non-government organizations through its Investment and Business Operations Division. TAPI also extends its assistance to agricultural-based enterprises through the Consultancy for Agricultural Productivity Enhancement (CAPE). It also assists small and medium scale enterprises in manufacturing to attain higher productivity through the Manufacturing Productivity Extension (MPEX) Program and the Venture Financing Program. TAPI also caters to students, young professional in developing their entrepreneurial competencies through the Small Enterprise Technology Upgrading Program DOST-Academe Technology-Based Enterprise Development (SETUP-DATBED) Program. DOST also supports technology transfer through the Science and Technology volunteer Pool Program (STEVPP). This program basically provides experts and scientists to its interested clients in the various regions and municipalities in th e Philippines in order to provide them technical assistance on technology commercialization (TAPI, 2008) Lastly is the Invention Development Division (IDD) who is mainly responsible for providing financial assistance to Filipino inventors by upholding the intellectual property system as well as the business development of inventions and technologies (TAPI, 2008). They basically provide funding assistance for the local inventors in their activities such as securing intellectual property protection, industrial applications in private enterprises, manufacturing and testing of their inventions, developing their invention as an enterprise commodity and even travel assistance. They are also given tax and duty exemptions through an endorsement to the Bureau of Internal Revenue and the Department of Finance. Inventors are also encouraged to showcase their inventions through the National Invention Contest and Exhibits (NICE) wherein they can have cash incentives or prizes amounting to P150,000.00 as well as WIPO Gold Medals and certificates. This contest is held annually and is open for all local inventors in the academe (high school and college level) as well as those in the private sectors. Among the other agencies concerned in the promotion of local invention and the protection of intellectual property rights are the Filipino Inventors Society and the Intellectual Property Rights Office of the Philippines. V. Cultivating Technological Innovation for Development Development or innovation in society of technologies, such as information and communication technologies should be self-cultivated rather than imported. (Corea, 2000) Based from the research paper there is a need for developing countries to improve or focus on achieving a technological adoption particularly on Information Communication Technologies to reap its benefits. There have been multiple research disciplines to support such study particularly; behavioral notion on development, concepts of change, theoretical formulations. The paper applies these ideas for understanding the macro-phenomena of national development in terms of technological innovation Technological change as defined in the paper is any incremental or radical changes in the application of problem-solving knowledge to the production process, resulting in increased efficiency, either in the form of a product or service produced with lower costs or in the form of a qualitative improvement in a product or service.